NORTH-WEST MOUNTED POLICE (NWMP): 1873-1904

Table of Content

• Events Preceding the Formation of the NWMP
• The Establishment of the North-West Mounted Police
• The Great March West
• The NWMP and the Indian Tribes
• The Indian Treaties
• The American Sioux
• The Varied Duties of the NWMP
• The Canadian Pacific Railway
• The Rebellion of 1885
• Commissioner L. W. Herchmer (1886-1900)
• Tensions Between Indians and Settlers
• The Yukon Gold Rush
• An Overland Route to the Yukon
• End of the Gold Rush
• The Boer War
• Commissioner Aylesworth Perry (1900-1923)
• The Northern Frontier
• Questions for Module I

Events Preceding the Formation of the NWMP

With the acquisition of the North-West Territories from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870, Canada assumed responsibility for establishing law and order in the new land. It was indeed a formidable task. The vast area, comprising the larger portion of the present Prairie Provinces, parts of Northern Ontario and Quebec, and much of the sub-Arctic regions, was dominated by unscrupulous whisky traders and nomadic Indian* tribes. The traders supplied the Indians with liquor, rifles, and ammunition in return for prized buffalo hides, furs, and horses. Law enforcement and the administration of justice were largely absent. A rudimentary judicial system had been instituted by the Hudson's Bay Company - justices of the peace were stationed at its various trading posts, and a criminal and civil court was located at Fort Garry, north of present-day Winnipeg. In general, however, violence, disorder, and a state of lawlessness prevailed.

In the same year that Canada acquired control of the Territories, a British army officer, Lieutenant William Butler, was commissioned by the government to survey the conditions prevailing on the new frontier. In his report, submitted in 1871, Butler stated: "The institutions of Law and Order, as understood in civilized communities, are wholly unknown." To establish order, he recommended the formation of a well-equipped military force of from 100 to 150 men, with one-third to be mounted. In 1872, a second Western reconnaissance was made by Colonel P. Robertson-Ross, the Commanding Officer of the Canadian Militia. His report confirmed Butler's assessment of the situation, concluding that "a large military force was not required, but that the presence of a certain force would be found to be indispensable for the security of the country, to prevent bloodshed and preserve order." He recommended the establishment of a regiment of 500 mounted rifles, and suggested that their uniforms include red coats.

Canada's first Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, had intended to organize a mounted police force in 1869, the year that the North-West Territories were originally scheduled to be transferred to Canadian sovereignty. At that time, he conceived of a force of mounted riflemen which "should not be expressly Military but should be styled Police, and have the military bearing of the Irish Constabulary." In addition, the force was to be a "mixed one of pure white and British and French half-breeds," after the British model of counteracting religious and racial strife in colonial India. However, the Red River Rebellion forced the postponement of Macdonald's plans and the transfer of the North-West to Canadian control

* In Module 1, which covers the period from 1873 to 1904, the term "Indian" is used in place of the more culturally sensitive "First Nations peoples". This reflects the common nineteenth century usage of the term and is not intended to demean First Nations peoples. Similarly, the use of the outdated designation "half-breed" is not intended to show disrespect to people of Métis descent.

The Establishment of the North-West Mounted Police

On May 23, 1873, six years after Confederation, an Act of Parliament authorized the formation of a mounted police force of 300 men for the North-West Territories. The original name was intended to be the "North-West Mounted Rifles", but the reaction of the U.S. to the prospect of an armed force patrolling the Canadian-American border prompted the name to be changed to "Mounted Police". (The Act of Parliament did not provide a title for the Force, and it was not until 1879 that the designation "North-West Mounted Police" became official.) The Force would be responsible to the Federal Minister of Justice, and not to the local authorities. Its responsibilities would be to patrol the frontier, suppress the whisky trade, collect customs, establish friendly relations with the Indians, and maintain law and order. In addition, all commissioned officers would act as justices of the peace.

On August 30, the Force was officially constituted by an Order-in-Council, but no further action was taken by the government at this point, despite reports of deteriorating conditions at Fort Whoop-Up (southwest of the present city of Lethbridge, Alberta). It was the Prime Minister's intention that recruitment would not begin until the spring of 1874. However, in early September, the government received news that a gang of white wolf hunters from Fort Benton, Montana, had killed a number of Assiniboine Indians, including women and children, at the Cypress Hills (in the southwestern corner of the present province of Saskatchewan) in a dispute over the alleged theft of some horses. The incident hastened the organization of the Force - the Prime Minister announced that three Divisions of 50 men each would be sent west before the close of navigation on the Dawson route in mid-October due to winter freezing. Responsibility for organizing the Force was assigned to Lieutenant Colonel W. Osborne Smith, the Commander of the militia in Manitoba, who was appointed temporary Commissioner on September 25. (See Appendix on page 46 for a list of Commissioners of the Force)

The 150 new recruits gathered at Collingwood, Ontario, on October 4, 1873, before departing for Lower Fort Garry where they were to begin their training. After a difficult journey, the men reached their destination the following month, and on November 3 service in the Force officially commenced. In the meantime, the Prime Minister had named George A. French as permanent Commissioner.

The Great March West

On November 6, three days after the first recruits were sworn in, Sir John A. Macdonald resigned as Prime Minister. The new government under Alexander Mackenzie, determined to eliminate the whisky trade and establish order in the west, announced plans for an expedition consisting of "300 riflemen fully equipped" to be sent into the North-West Territories. The expedition was to be commanded by Commissioner French and "though nominally policemen the men will be dressed in scarlet uniform". In choosing a uniform for the Force, the government followed the recommendations of numerous observers (including P. Robertson-Ross and Lord Dufferin, Governor General of Canada) who had drawn attention to the long-standing respect among the Indian tribes for the red-coated British soldier. In March, 1874, Commissioner French, who had already informed Ottawa that the 150 men under his command were not sufficient to perform the duties assigned to the Force, obtained authority to organize an additional three divisions of 50 men each.

On June 6, the new recruits departed Toronto to rendezvous with the first contingent at Fort Dufferin, Manitoba, approximately 60 miles south of Winnipeg. They arrived on June 19 and preparations for the westward march began immediately. Commissioner French was instructed to proceed to the Belly River in the foothills of southern Alberta and leave a small force there, and then journey north to Fort Edmonton.

On July 8, the expedition set out toward its destination, 800 miles away across unsettled territory. The column, which stretched for two miles, consisted of 275 officers and men (the entire Force) as well as horses, oxen, cattle, wagons, ox-carts, artillery, and agricultural equipment. By the time the expedition had reached Roche-Percée on July 24, 275 miles from its point of departure, many of the horses and oxen were on the verge of exhaustion. On August 1, Commissioner French decided that one division should proceed directly to the Hudson's Bay post at Fort Edmonton with the weaker animals. The remainder of the expedition continued westward.

The task of establishing a police post and maintaining law and order in the foothills was now the responsibility of the Assistant Commissioner, James Macleod. Accompanied by Jerry Potts, a half-breed guide and interpreter who had been hired in Fort Benton and who was to render invaluable service to the Force over the years, Macleod and the remaining divisions continued west. On October 9, they reached their primary objective, Fort Whoop-Up, the infamous stronghold of the whisky traders, located at the junction of the St. Mary's and Belly Rivers. To their surprise, however, the site was almost deserted. The whisky traders had either fled across the border or had abandoned their illegal activities altogether.

The arrival of the NWMP marked the beginning of a new era on Canada's frontier. By the end of 1874, the illicit whisky trade had largely disappeared and law and order had been established. In the years that followed, there was little serious crime, with horse stealing being the most common criminal offence. In preserving the peace, the Force's responsibilities consisted largely of enforcing the liquor ordinances, which prohibited the importation of intoxicants into the North-West Territories "except for medicinal and sacramental purposes."

For the next decade, the main task confronting the Force was to develop and maintain peaceful relations with the various Indian tribes. On December 1, 1874, the Assistant Commissioner met with the Chiefs of the Blackfoot Confederacy at Fort Macleod. He emphasized that it was not the intention of the NWMP to confiscate their lands, but to explain to them the new laws that were to be enforced on the frontier. He assured the Chiefs that Canadian laws would be administered fairly and would punish all transgressors equally, white or Indian.

Through tact and understanding, Macleod succeeded in gaining the respect of the Indian leaders. For their part, the chiefs welcomed the presence of the NWMP. The whisky trade had a devastating effect on their tribes and the once vast buffalo herds were on the verge of extinction.

The Indian Treaties

In order to ensure the successful completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the peaceful settlement of the North-West, it was essential that the Indian claims to the land be extinguished. To this end, the Canadian government began making treaties with the Indians shortly after the purchase of the Territories in 1870. Under the conditions of the treaties, the Indians surrendered their territorial claims in return for a number of benefits which generally included: i) an allotted reserve for homes and agricultural use; ii) hunting and fishing rights while the territory remained a Crown property; iii) an annuity of five dollars per head for each man, woman, and child (25 dollars for chiefs and 15 dollars for councillors); and iv) the establishment of schools and provision of agricultural implements and livestock. By 1875, Canada had acquired control of all territory west of Manitoba with the exception of the lands claimed by the Saskatchewan Indians and the Blackfoot Confederacy.

On August 23, 1876, the government concluded a treaty with the Cree and the Assiniboine Indians of Saskatchewan, and on September 22, 1877, a treaty was signed with the tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy. The trust and confidence gained by the NWMP in its relations with the Indians were vital to the successful signing of the treaties. As Red Crow, Chief of the Bloods, stated: "Everything that the Mounted Police have done has been for our good."

The American Sioux

In 1875, American authorities directed that all Indians must settle on the reserves which had been allotted to them by January 31, 1876, or be deemed hostile. Many Indian tribes refused, and the U.S. Army launched a campaign to force them onto the reserves. In June, 1876, five troops of the 7th U.S. Cavalry under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Custer attacked a Sioux encampment near the Little Bighorn River in Montana, 300 miles south of the Cypress Hills. In one of the most controversial battles in American history, Custer's force, which comprised more than 200 men, was annihilated. Subsequently, large numbers of Sioux crossed the border into Canada and sought refuge in the Cypress Hills. The NWMP faced a very difficult task. The Sioux were traditional enemies of many of the Canadian tribes and threatened to disrupt the peaceful relations existing between the Indians and the government. In addition, it was the responsibility of the Force to ensure that they obeyed Canadian laws and not be allowed to use Canadian territory as a base from which to attack the U.S. As a result of the influx of the Sioux, a number of new detachments were established and Fort Walsh in the Cypress Hills became the NWMP's main centre of operations. All attempts to persuade the refugees to return to the U.S. were unsuccessful. However, by 1879, with buffalo herds further depleted and the growing realization that their traditional way of life was no longer possible, small groups began to return across the border. By 1881, the last remnants of the Sioux were finally persuaded to leave Canadian territory.

The Varied Duties of the NWMP

After 1874, the duties of the NWMP were many and varied in the west and extended far beyond the confines of general law enforcement. For many years, the Force was responsible for mail services between settlements and police barracks served as post offices. In addition, illnesses and accidents were attended to, assistance was provided to victims of winter blizzards, and aid was extended to those threatened with starvation and other forms of privation. Lost travellers were located, lunatics were escorted to the nearest asylum at Brandon, and weddings and funerals were arranged. NWMP surgeons attended to Indians and settlers as well as members of the Force. Over the years the NWMP provided increasing assistance to various government departments: protecting timber lands on behalf of the Department of the Interior, acting as cattle quarantine officers for the Department of Agriculture, collecting duties for the Customs Department, and handling treaty payments for the Indian Affairs Department. It also assisted in the preparation of the census in 1881, 1885, 1891 and 1895.

A NWMP constable visits and Indian camp near Qu'appelle, North-West Territories, about 1883

The Canadian Pacific Railway

From 1882 to 1885 it was the responsibility of the NWMP to maintain order during the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. A special detachment was organized under Inspector Samuel Steele to enforce the Act for the Preservation of Peace in the Vicinity of Public Works, which prohibited drinking and gambling for an area of 10 miles on each side of the surveyed railway line. In addition, the Force escorted the railway paymaster, settled quarrels, dealt with angry strikers, and prevented thefts and holdups. With the appearance of a growing number of towns and villages along the railway, detachments were established in order to preserve law and order and the strength of the Force was increased to meet its new responsibilities. In 1882, the headquarters of the NWMP was transferred from Fort Walsh to the new territorial capital at Regina.

The Rebellion of 1885

With the signing of the Indian treaties, the Canadian government hoped that the various tribes would gradually adapt to a sedentary way of life, settling peacefully on the reserves and supporting themselves by farming. The Indians, however, did not initially take up the lands which had been allotted to them and continued instead to hunt buffalo. But as the herds rapidly disappeared, they had little choice and reluctantly moved onto the reserves. However, they bitterly resented the loss of their territory and the fact that, once on the reserves, they were reduced to begging for food and assistance. A number of serious confrontations occurred between the Indians and officials of the Indian Affairs Department, and there were fears of a full-blown rebellion. In 1884, the Métis of Saskatchewan, threatened by the spread of white settlement, petitioned Ottawa in order to obtain title to their lots on the North Saskatchewan River. They were represented by Louis Riel, the leader of the Red River Rebellion in 1869. At first proceeding legally, Riel later established a provisional government in March 1885 with the support of some of the Cree tribes.

Amid fears that the Indians would join the Métis in a general uprising, Commissioner A.G Irvine was ordered to proceed northward from Regina with all available men. However, only hours before their arrival on March 26, a severe clash between police from the Fort Carlton detachment and a large body of half-breeds and Indians occurred near Duck Lake. As a result, the police were forced to retreat. However, the victory for the insurgents was short-lived. Within a few days, members of the NWMP combined with militia units from eastern and western Canada in a military campaign to quell the uprising. Following a series of encounters, the rebels were finally defeated at Batoche on May 9, 1885. The NWMP suffered eight killed and 11 wounded, and played a major role in ending the rebellion.

Following the uprising, the NWMP resumed responsibility for maintaining law and order throughout the west. To meet the demands upon it, the strength of the Force was increased to 1,039 men. No section of the plains was beyond the reach of the NWMP and, to assist in reaching isolated and remote areas, a number of Indians and Métis were employed as trailers and scouts.

Commissioner L. W. Herchmer (1886-1900)

A new stage in the history of western Canada began in 1885. The defeat of Riel and the completion of the C.P.R. marked the end of the old frontier society and the beginning of a period of growth and settlement on the prairies. With the end of the frontier, there was no longer any need for the NWMP as a military organization. As its duties became essentially civil in nature, it was imperative that the Force be transformed into primarily a police service in order to meet the needs of the settlers.

In 1886, the appointment of a new Commissioner, Lawrence William Herchmer, resulted in a major reorganization of the Force. A series of important reforms followed. Training was reorganized, with more attention being given to the duties and responsibilities of a police officer. New standing orders were issued and were contained in the "Regulations and Orders," published in 1889. In order to improve the efficiency of the Force, recruiting standards were more strictly enforced, and new members were required to undergo a probationary period of service. Discipline was tightened and drunkards were dismissed. In addition, canteens were established that sold supplies at cost. The sale of 40% beer was also allowed in the canteens in order to keep the men out of the bars. Herchmer also established a plainclothes detective section in order to enforce the liquor laws more effectively and established a riding school at Regina. However, the new Commissioner was unsuccessful in obtaining beds for the men, who were forced to continue sleeping on uncomfortable trestle beds or on the ground, thus contracting rheumatism. (In 1893, iron bedsteads were purchased, but only for the divisions at Regina, Calgary and Lethbridge.) He was also unable to obtain an increase in pay for members of the Force, but he did succeed in securing pensions for NCO's and constables in 1889.

The most significant accomplishment of Herchmer was the establishment of an extensive system of patrols. Under the system, the NWMP was organized into small detachments throughout the Territories with the responsibility of patrolling an assigned area. Members of the Force were provided with special Patrol Report Forms on which they were instructed to note "everything that has come under their observation, movements of doubtful characters, conditions of crops, prospects of hay, the ownership of any particular fine horses they may see, and to each report a rough map should be attached." To facilitate communication, many of the detachments were eventually equipped with telephone or telegraph facilities. By 1887, the incidence of rural crime had declined as a result of the patrol system. In 1890, flying patrols were introduced (i.e. patrols which did not follow regular trails). Unfortunately, however, the very effectiveness of the system contributed to its downfall. Parliamentary critics questioned the need for such a large and expensive police force when there was so little crime and the threat of Indian violence had ceased. As a result, the strength of the Force, which had been increased to 1,039 men in 1885, was reduced to 933 in 1893, and to 750 in 1896. Ironically, in 1898 the Force on the prairies was decreased to 563 men at precisely the time that large numbers of settlers were beginning to arrive.

Tensions Between Indians and Settlers

Following the 1885 rebellion, the majority of Indians adjusted to life on the reserves. However, a number of serious incidents occurred which illustrated the gulf that existed between the Indians and the white settlers. In 1887, just across the border in British Columbia, tension had developed between the Kootenay Indians and the local settlers. The situation deteriorated when a group of Kootenays attacked the provincial jail at Wild Horse and released an Indian charged with the murder of a number of white miners. An NWMP force of three officers and 75 men under the command of Superintendent Samuel Steele was despatched from Fort Macleod in June. After several months, Steele succeeded in restoring order and the NWMP withdrew in August 1888.

The most serious incident on the prairies involved a young Cree known as Almighty Voice. In October, 1895, he had been arrested for killing a settler's cow and sentenced to 30 days in the detachment cells at Duck Lake. However, he escaped and was discovered a few days later near the One Arrow Reserve by an NWMP Sergeant. As the officer attempted to place him under arrest, Almighty Voice shot and killed him.

The murder was cause for alarm, and it was feared that unless the killer was quickly captured, similar incidents might follow. However, Almighty Voice managed to elude the police for more than a year. Moreover, his exploits had gained the sympathy of other Indians. Eventually the government offered a reward of $500 for his capture, but with no results. Finally, he and two armed Cree companions were discovered by an NWMP search party near Duck Lake and chased into a thickly wooded grove. After trying unsuccessfully to set fire to the green underbrush, the police advanced into the grove. In the ensuing clash, two officers were seriously wounded and the police party withdrew. At dusk, fearing that Almighty Voice would escape, it was decided to launch a second attack. However, it was a disastrous decision and resulted in the deaths of two policemen and a civilian.

The most tragic incident occurred during the same period when an NWMP sergeant from the Pincher Creek detachment was killed while attempting to arrest a Blood Indian named Charcoal who was wanted for murder. Charcoal was popular with members of the Force and was described by Samuel Steele as "the equal if not the superior in character and prowess of the ideal Indian of Fenimore Cooper's novels." Moreover, there was evidence that he had been provoked to murder. While eluding police, he could easily have crossed the border into Montana, but chose not to. Eventually captured by his two brothers, Charcoal was tried and hanged in what has been described as one of the most regrettable executions in the history of the west.

The Yukon Gold Rush

By 1894, the government was concerned about the protection of Canadian sovereignty in the Yukon. The only law or authority in the area was that of a community of miners who dispensed their own justice through a series of "miners' meetings". In addition, traders entering the Yukon by way of Alaska evaded payment of Canadian customs duties. Inspector Charles Constantine was sent north to investigate conditions in the region, and recommended that order could be established by a Mounted Police detachment of at least 35 to 40 men. In 1895, Constantine was ordered to return to the Yukon, but with a contingent of only 19 men. He established Fort Constantine on the Yukon River, the first NWMP post in the territory.

By 1896, the NWMP had succeeded in establishing Canadian laws and authority throughout the Yukon. At the same time, a rich discovery of gold was made at Bonanza Creek, and within two years, thousands of miners, gamblers, and adventurers from all over the world had converged on the area. As a result, police posts were erected at the summits of the White and Chilkoot Passes, and detachments - eventually totalling more than 30 - were established wherever a new discovery was made or a settlement located. The original contingent of 19 men was increased to 99 by the summer of 1897 and reached a total strength of 285 in 1898. In addition, the government established the Yukon Field Force, a military battalion of over 200 men which performed guard and escort duties.

The duties of the Force during the gold rush were numerous and varied. It maintained regular patrols throughout the Yukon in order to control crime and operated customs checkpoints for people and goods crossing the Canada-Alaska border on the overland route to the Klondike. Prospectors were also checked to ensure they had enough food and equipment for the journey to the gold fields. Superintendent Samuel Steele, who had relieved Constantine in 1898, issued a proclamation which stated that no one would be allowed to enter the Yukon unless he possessed two months' provisions and $500, or six months' provisions and $200. Restrictions imposed by the NWMP, such as the inspection and registration of boats, saved the lives of many ill-equipped adventurers. During this period, the Force also assumed responsibility for the distribution of mail to the scattered gold mining camps. In a single year, 64,000 miles were covered in the performance of this service.

Inspector R. Belcher who was on duty at the summit of the pass brought his men down to assist with the recovery and identification of the bodies

An Overland Route to the Yukon

The route taken by the majority of miners travelling to the Yukon was by sea from the west coast ports of Canada and the U.S. to Skagway in Alaska, and then through the mountain passes and down the Yukon River to Dawson. In 1897, in an effort to find an all-Canadian route, a patrol led by Inspector J. D. Moodie was detailed to explore the feasibility of travelling overland from Edmonton to Dawson. After a hazardous journey of over 700 miles across the mountain ranges of northern B. C. and the Yukon, the patrol reached Dawson more than a year later. Although a tremendous feat of endurance, it was evident that an overland route was impractical, at least for the time being. It was to be realized many years later with the construction of the Alaska Highway.

End of the Gold Rush

The gold rush was short-lived. By 1899 it had begun to subside and the population of the area had declined. By 1910, the two NWMP divisions at Dawson and Whitehorse were amalgamated into one with headquarters at Dawson. In addition, the strength of the Force in the Yukon was reduced to 60 men.

The Boer War

In 1899, over 200 members of the Force were granted leave of absence to serve in South Africa during the Boer War (1899-1902). Unable to fight under NWMP colours, they enlisted in the 2nd Canadian Mounted Rifles, commanded by Commissioner L. W. Herchmer, and the Lord Strathcona's Horse, commanded by Superintendent Samuel Steele.

Commissioner Aylesworth Perry (1900-1923)

The NWMP patrol system was reorganized in 1901 by Commissioner Aylesworth Perry. He solved the problem of insufficient men by assigning a certain number to special patrol duty. These patrols remained constantly on the move, thereby covering the greatest possible area in the least possible time. His greatest innovation, though, was the institution of the crime report. All members of the Force were required to report in detail on all aspects of their work. Ultimately, these reports were to be forwarded to NWMP Headquarters at Regina to be card-indexed and stored in files.

The Northern Frontier

In 1890, the NWMP had begun to extend its operations into the vast territory west of Hudson Bay. By the end of the nineteenth century the region had attracted a growing number of traders, trappers, and prospectors. Consequently, there was a need for more effective police control in order to protect the native people, enforce liquor and hunting regulations, and preserve Canadian sovereignty. In 1897, detachments were established at Fort Chipewyan, Athabasca Landing, and Lesser Slave Lake. In 1903, the NWMP began the first of a series of patrols which would eventually bring the entire northern mainland under Canadian authority. The patrols were undertaken as a result of the dispute between the Canadian and U.S. governments over the location of the Alaskan boundary. When the issue was eventually settled in favour of the U.S. claim, Canada became concerned that the activities of American whalers along the Arctic coasts might result in further loss of territory. As a result, NWMP detachments were established at Fort McPherson and Herschel Island, the first post in the Arctic Ocean.

In the meantime, the NWMP had also established a post at Fullerton, on the west coast of Hudson Bay, under the command of Superintendent J. D. Moodie. His task was to investigate the activities of the whaling fleets in the area and to establish Canadian authority in the region.

Thus, in 1903, 30 years after its inception, the Force had assumed responsibility for law and order throughout a large area of northern and western Canada. The distribution of NWMP personnel extended from the International Boundary to the Polar Sea, and from Hudson Bay to the Alaskan border. They had prepared the way for the peaceful settlement and development of the Canadian frontier in the west and in the north.

END OF MODULE 1