PURPOSEFUL TEACHING: DESIGN AND INSTRUCTION FOR ADULT LEARNERS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• Training/Education Approach
• The Needs of Adult Learning
• Instructor's Preparation and Delivery Guidelines
• Bloom's Taxonomy
• Selecting Instructional Techniques
• Planning Verbs
• Training Plan and Guidelines For Instructors
• Center For Excellence In Teaching - Teaching Tips
• Tips For An "Interactive Learning"  Lecture
• Reflect - Connect - Project

TRAINING/EDUCATION APPROACH

Training must be more than imparting knowledge. The instructor's job is to facilitate learning for every participant regardless of previous experience or educational background. Training must be grounded in a clear understanding of adult learning. It must combine the needs of participants with the outcomes stated in course curriculum. Telling is not teaching, nor is listening learning. Consequently, instructors must engage participants in a wide range of structured learning activities, which lead to a higher level of understanding and result in the participant's ability to apply theories and models in their own context.

The training approach presented here is focused on student learning. Teaching is a purposeful activity where every action of the teacher is planned for or responding to the learning needs of the students. This is a dynamic curriculum and instruction system consisting of the following essential elements:

• outcomes stated in terms of how the student will demonstrate his/her acquisition of knowledge and skills
  
• students' active engagement in the learning process through interactive teaching techniques embedded in the curriculum and responsive interaction techniques used by instructors to secure student involvement
  
• a continuous assessment of student learning through diagnostic dialogue between students and instructor and checking for understanding by the instructor.

The following is a description of the adult learning concepts on which this approach is based along with some of the principles and models which guide the structured learning activities.

THE NEEDS OF ADULT LEARNERS

Adult Learners:

• Have a good deal of first-hand experience that they wish to use and share in class.
  
• Expect to be treated with respect due their maturity and individualism in the learning situation.
  
• Usually have specific and immediate learning goals and expect structure and clear outcomes for the learning program. They want to know how to apply learning to their personal or professional lives.
  
• Have a desire to be active participants in the learning process. Effective learning situations are interactive and tend to be centered on problem solving.
  
• Are frequently anxious about their learning abilities and the appearance of competence in the classroom, but are anxious for educational success.
  
• Have a strong need for periodic feedback, encouragement, and learning in an atmosphere where there is a high degree of safety, mutual commitment, and choice.
  
• Are critical of unprepared teachers, poorly articulated programs, and individuals or processes which interfere with their learning.
  
• Expect to have their physical needs met (adequate furniture, appropriate breaks, etc.).
  
• Need a good balance between tight, well-paced, content-oriented presentations and the time needed for learning integration.

INSTRUCTOR'S PREPARATION AND DELIVERY GUIDELINES

Instructors should to adhere to these general guidelines:

1. Use the beginning of class time wisely. It is the best time to set a positive learning environment and is one of the two times that the highest level of learning takes place. Establish confidence and trust between participants and instructors. A first step is structuring ways for them to get to know you as well as each other. Begin with suitable introduction which is as experiential, lively, and as low-risk as possible.
   
2. Identify participant expectations and be prepared to act on any serious discrepancies between yours and theirs. Know what is negotiable with you. Be available to change what is negotiable and stick to what is not.
   
3. Achieve a balance between experiential, "hands-on"/ practical and discussion/lecture activities and balance among independent, paired, group, and class activities.
   
4. Use groups wisely. When using groups and group projects, attend to the process of making those groups successful; teach people how to operate in groups and monitor/support their progress.
   
5. When using direct/lecture instruction, keep it short (7-20 minutes), make sure it is well organized and supported by audio/visual aids.
   
6. Involve participants in active discussion sessions among themselves with you as a participant. Discussion is more than instructor questions and participant answers. Always be aware of opportunities (and plan many) to relate experiences to participants' lives and work.
   
7. Check for the understanding of participants. Plan regular feedback points and be aware of other times when feedback is in order. Work to make feedback timely. Be available and approachable to your participants.
   
8. Increase the level of learning by asking higher-order, critical thinking questions when you have established the participants' understanding and ability to apply their comprehension of knowledge and skills. Use Bloom's Taxonomy as a tool to guide your activity selection and questioning style.

BLOOM'S TAXONOMY

Levels of Thinking, Questioning, and Learning
(lowest to highest)

Verbs for Writing Behavioral Learning Outcomes

• Acquisition of Knowledge
• Enhancement of Thinking Skills
• Development of Psychomotor Skills
• Changes in Attitudes, Values, and/or Feelings

Acquisition of Knowledge

Lecture. A one-way organized, formal talk is given by a resource person for the purpose of presenting a series of events, facts, concepts, or principles.

Panel. A group of three to eight people present their views on a particular topic or problem.

Group discussion. A group of five to twenty people have a relatively unstructured exchange of ideas about a specific problem or issue.

Buzz group. A large group is divided into small "huddle" groups for the purpose of discussing the problem or subject matter at hand.

Reaction panel. A panel of three or four participants react to a presentation of an individual or group of individuals.

Screened speech. Small groups of participants develop questions they wish resource persons to respond to extemporaneously.

Symposium. A series of related presentations (three to six) are offered by persons qualified to speak on different phases of a subject or problem. Listening group. In groups, participants are asked to listen to or observe an assigned pan of a speech, panel, or the like.

Enhancement of Thinking Skills

Case study. A small group analyzes and solves an event, incident, or situation presented orally or in writing.

Game. An individual or group performs an activity characterized by structured competition that provides the opportunity to practice specific thinking skills and actions (such as decision making).

In-basket exercise. In a form of simulation that focuses on the "paper symptoms" of a job, participants respond to material people might have in their in-baskets.

Critical incident. Participants are asked to describe an important incident related to a specific aspect of their lives. This is then used as a basis for analysis.

Debate. A presentation of conflicting views by two people or two groups of people helps to clarify the arguments between them.

Reflective practice. Thoughtfully reflecting on one's actions, including the assumptions and feelings associated with those actions, can be done individually or as a part of a small group discussion.

Observation. After an individual or group systematically observes and records an event using a specific focus (for example, leadership style, group interactions, instructor behavior), the data are analyzed and discussed (either one on one or in a group format).

Quiet meeting. Participants who know each other well sit quietly and reflect on a topic or question, sharing from time to time an idea on the area presented. No reaction is given to these comments, although others are free to share their ideas also The power of this technique is in the silence, not the talking or listening.

Source: Adapted Tom Caffarella Rosemary S. Planning Programs for Adult Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc., 1994, PP. 189-190.

Development of Psychomotor Skills

Demonstration with return demonstration. A resource person performs a specified or a job, showing others how to do it. The participants then practice the same task.

Simulation. Participants practice skills in a learning environment that simulates the real setting in which those skills are required.

Trial and error. Participants are encouraged to figure out individually or in groups a way to do a hands-on job effectively.

Skill practice exercise. Participants repeat performance of a skill with or without the aid of an instructor.

Behavior modeling. A model or ideal enactment of a desired behavior presented via an instructor, videotape, or film, usually followed by a practice session on the behavior.

Changes in Attitudes, Values, and/or Feelings

Role playing. The spontaneous dramatization of situation or problem is followed by a group discussion.

Simulation. This is a learning environment that simulates a real setting, with the focus on attitudes and feelings related to the situation presented.

Group discussion. A group of five to twelve people have a relatively unstructured exchange of ideas focused on the attitudes and values they hold about a specific issue or problem.

Storytelling. Participants "tell their stories" about an experience that all or most group members have in common.

Metaphor analysis. Participants construct metaphors--that describe, in a parallel yet more meaningful way, a phenomenon being discussed.

Game. Participants take part in an activity characterized by structured competition to provide insight into their attitudes, values, and interests.

Exercise, structured experience. People participate in a planned exercises or experiences, usually using some instrument or guide, and then discuss their feelings and reactions.

Reflective practice. Thoughtfully reflecting on one's actions, including the assumptions and feelings associated with those actions, can be done individually or as a part of a small group discussion.

Source: Adapted from Capella, Rosemary S. Planning Programs for Adult Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc., 1994, pp. 189-190.

PLANNING VERBS

TRAINING PLAN AND GUIDELINES FOR INSTRUCTORS

This Training Plan Template can be used to design course work and the classes within each course. The Training Plan is based on a participant-centered, outcomes-based approach to teaching and learning. Course plans have the following components:

Course Plan

Lesson Design/Class Plan

Time Allotment:

Opening Learning Activity:
Purpose:

• focus participant attention
• identify level of participants' current knowledge or experience
• reinforce or integrate previous learning
• develop readiness and motivation for new objectives

Communicate Lesson Objectives/Plan
Purpose:

• give participants and instructor focus and shared direction
• provide guidance for reflection on and evaluation of learning

Provide Instructional Activities on Content, Concepts, or Skills to be Acquired
Purpose:

• direct instruction gives participants foundational information
• modeling or examples of concept or skill increases participant comprehension and begins the transfer of learning process
• activities to increase level of critical thinking move learning to higher levels
• activities to check for understanding give participant and instructor a knowledge of the level of participant comprehension of material.

Guided Practice with Feedback
Purpose:

• give participant application guidance and feedback
• help participant transfer learning to other contexts
• give instructor and participant diagnostic feedback on level of participants' learning and necessity for reteaching

Independent Practice and Assessment
Purpose:

• give participant an evaluation of the acquisition of learning and skill as demonstrated on selected assessment instruments or projects
• provide feedback to the instructor on degree and quality of participant learning

Curriculum Embedded Active Teaching Strategies Demonstration.  Instead of talking about a concept, procedures or set of facts, try fan demonstration of three ~ ~ ~ -information in action. Involving participants in the demonstration makes the learning more experiential rather than vicarious.

Case Study.: A case study can be likened to a written demonstration. You are providing an account of a real or fictitious situation including enough detail to make it possible for groups to analyze problems involved. You can also embed information in the case you might normally use in a lecture format. Case studies are good for opening a lesson to provide focus and identify needs, and  are an excellent way to transfer knowledge into practice.

Guided Teaching. Instead of presenting a lecture, ask a series of questions to tap the knowledge of the group or to obtain their hypotheses or conclusions. You may get more participation if you beam the questions to pairs or small groups for mini-discussion prior t o taking answers. Record their ideas and compare them to the lecture points you have in mind. Expand on those brought up and include those missed.

Read/Watch add Discuss. Ask participants to read a short, well-formatted handout covering lecture material or ~wateh~ a video presentation and then continue with small group discussion to clarify its contents and application.

Group Inquiry. Instead of asking questions, the instructor can pose a problem or challenge participants to demise questions of their own for the group around a topic the instructor introduces. This activity can be used in conjunction with Read and Discuss.

Information Search. This method can be likened to an open book test. Hand out worksheets containing questions about the topic. Have the group search for the information which you would normally cover in ad lecture. The search can be accomplished by small groups, pairs, or individuals.

Cooperative Learning. Structure group activities which emphasize positive interdependence in a groupie learning situation. Individual accountability is a key outcome of these strategies.

Panel Presentations. Participants research aspects of a topic or problems and present in a panel format

Role Playing. Role playing is the best way for participants to practice a skill or explore a body of knowledge in a safe and somewhat realistic way. You set up a situation and have participants take the parts indicated. This should not he accomplished in front of a class of peers.

Games and Simulations. Interactive learning has a greater impact than passive learning. Information that is discovered remains longer with participants. Games and simulations can be used to assess participants level of skill or knowledge or give them an opportunity to practice and improve.

Writing Tasks. These tasks can be reports, proposals, reactions, journals, or summaries. Make sure that guidelines for writing tasks are clear as well as grading (if any) criteria.

Mini Application Projects The project method of learning involves assigning complex tasks to participants. Such tasks should challenge them to obtain additional information and to apply what they have learned.

Contracts. Participants can create projects of their own based on your criteria or theirs. The key here is that they write a proposal in the form of a contract which both of you sign. The contract should include objectives, activities, and a mutually agreed upon form of evaluation. In addition a time line or due dates is appropriate.

Summary: Effective Strategies to Promote Adult Learning

Adults:

• Expect to be treated with respect because they bring experience to be shared in the learning situation. Part of each day's training activities includes an open discussion section to draw on the knowledge and skills of participants.
  
• Have specific learning goals that include putting new knowledge and skills ; into practice in their own contexts. One of the early activities in training is assessing and including, where possible, the participants' expectations for learning.
  
• Require a challenging, but supportive, low-risk learning atmosphere and activities that build confidence, as well as competence. Each training session begins with an oral assessment of the participants' learning acquisitions. This allows for articulation and integration of new knowledge and skills. Additionally, participants will be able to state needs and concerns for the day's training so that instructors may incorporate those into the day is plan. Most learning and case analysis groups range from two to six persons so that participants will have an easy time contributing to discussions prior to whole class discussions. Role plays or simulations are done in groups of three with two participants and an observer for feedback.
  
• Require a variety of learning activities which are interactive, meet their learning styles and prompt critical thinking and problem-solving. Whiled 1 lecture is an efficient way to deliver information, it should be only one~of~ t he many teaching techniques used since it meets the learning style of only 20 percent of the adult population, while another 20 percent are visual learners and the remaining 60 percent require a mixture of learning modalities. Teaching using interactive learning helps translate theory into  practice and leads to knowledge and skill acquisition. Interactive learning also increases the level of critical thinking and problem-solving required of participants.

CENTER FOR EXCELLENCE IN TEACHING - TEACHING TIP SHEET

• Checking For Learning
• Ten Methods to Get Participation at Any Time
• Engaging Students Through Learning Pairs
• Ten Questions to Obtain Student Expectations
• Ten Strategies to Form Learning Groups

• Ten Tips When Facilitating Discussion

Checking For Learning

Checking for Learning is essential whenever you or your student are transmitting information.  Remember: telling is not teaching and listening is not necessarily learning.  Checking for learning is for your benefit diagnostically and it helps the student synthesize his/her learnings and articulate them.   Checking for learning also supports students' retention and integration of material, and precipitates higher level thinking.

Techniques for Checking for Learning - Assessing Prior Knowledge and Learning

1. Questionnaire:
   Open-ended, short answer, or multiple choice.  This is not a test!  Check it in class to make sure that students get the feedback on their level of knowledge.   These can also be done in a pair or small group so that discussion precedes answers.
   
2. Focused Listing:
   Prepare terms, names, or concepts for the students' response.  This can be shared individually or in small groups. 
   
3. News Flash/Sound Bites:
   Students state what they know as a short written newsflash or as a sound bite that might be the lead in for a radio or television show on the topic.
   
4. Five Bullets and a Summary:
   Students are to state their knowledge in no more than five factual bullets and a one sentence summary.
   
5. Three Step Interview:
   Break students into two pairs to make groups of four.  Each pair has an A person and a B person.  Person A interviews person B in each pair.  They then switch roles of interviewer/interviewee.  When interviews are done, each person reports out to the group of 4 what they have learned about the knowledge of their partner on the topic.  This can be reported to the whole class orally or on a large print paper.
   
6. Journal Entry:
   Have students prepare a short journal entry in response to your prompt. These can be turned in, reported orally, or shared with a partner.
   
7. Paired Sharing:
   Have students share their knowledge with a partner. Ask students what they heard in the pairs.
   
8. Misconception/Preconception Check:
   Instructors identify troublesome common misconceptions or preconceptions about the subject and put those into a list. Create a Likertstyle response for students or make a true/false statement list. Sort data and present to students.

Quick Checks for Classroom Acquisition/Learning

1. Empty Outlines or Mindmaps:
   Instructor creates an outline or mindmap of the material to be covered with blanks in it for the students to fill in at intervals during class. These can be pair checked or turned in to the instructor.
   
2. Memory Matrix:
   Instructor creates a two dimensional matrix to organize information and show relationships. In a memory matrix the row and column entries are given but the cells are left empty for the student to fill in.
   
3. Minute Paper:
   Student has one minute to discuss what s/he knows about the subject. These are turned in to the instructor and discussed in the next class.
   
4. NewsFlash or Sound Bites:
   Students state what they know as a short written newsflash or as a sound bite that might be the lead in for a radio or television show on the topic.
   
5. Muddiest Point:
   Students jot down a response to the muddiest point for them following a lecture, discussion, or a homework assignment. Those are answered in class by the instructor.
   
6. Form a Question:
   Students form a question as if they were checking for learning. These can be drawn from the class orally or in writing (3x5 cards work well). This can also be completed as a paired activity. Questions that cannot be answered in pair can be directed to the class.
   
7. Make a Connection:
   Ask students to make a connection from the new material to something that have experienced in their professional or personal experience This can also be written in a learning log to be collected at the end of class.
   
8. Apply the Concept, Theory, Model:
   Ask students how information, concept, theory, or model can be applied. Share the application with a partner, the class or the teacher in writing. This can be accomplished with a 3x5 card or a learning log.
   
9. Hand Signals/Cue Cards:
   YIN, T/F, 1-5: Ask students for answers to a question through the use of yes/no or true/false signals (hand signals. The show the response signal all at once so that the instructor gets a quick eye view of knowledge. Students can also show their degree or agreement or disagreement with a statement by showing a number of fingers corresponding with Likert scale numbers. They can also show their perception of their learning with this technique.
   
10. One word/phrase/sentence learning:
    Ask students to identify one new or renewed learning for them from the lesson taught.
    
11. Graffiti Wall:
    Ask students to write their learning from the lesson taught on a graffiti wall or sheet. This can be used once or make an on-going learning wall.

Reflective Checks for Learning

1. Invented Dialogues: In inventing dialogues, students synthesize their knowledge of issues, personalities, and historical forms into the form of a structured dialogue. Two levels of this assignment are possible. Students weave together existing quotations for a dialogue or create a dialogue from their knowledge of the characters.
   
2. RIC/P Dialogue Journal: Ask students to go through the steps of reflecting on what they know, making connections to something else they know or have experienced, and project a practical use for the information or learning. This is placed in a journal where the instructor can respond to it. Grades can respond to the levels: C for only reflecting, B for reflecting and connecting, A for doing all three processes. Essentially the role of the instructor is to comment and ask questions for the student to consider.
   
3. Graphic Organizer Completion: Have students fill in any graphic organizer such as a Venn Diagram or flow chart with information learned from class, texts, and/or other sources. Graphic organizers prompt a type of critical thinking you wish to precipitate in students as well as checking learning.
   
4. Approximate Analogies: Working individually or in pairs have students identify key relationships between points made in lecture or reading with something outside of class or other concepts in class. Model the strategy for them or prompt them with starting key points.
   
5. Application Cards: Have students write down applications for concepts shared. These can be turned in to the instructor, or shared with others in the class discussing similarities and differences.

Ten Methods to Get Participation at Any Time

Active learning cannot occur without student participation There are various ways to structure discussion and obtain responses from students at any time during a class. Some are especially suitable when time is limited or participation needs to be coaxed, You might also consider combining these methods--for example, using subdiscussion and then inviting a spokesperson for each group to serve on a panel.

1. Open discussion: Ask a question and open it up to the entire group without any further structuring. the straightforward quality of open discussion is appealing. If you are worried that the discussion might be too lengthy, say beforehand, "I'd like to ask four or five students to share..." To encourage students to raise their hands, ask, "How many of you have a response to my question?" Then, call on a student with his or her hand raised.
   
2. Response cards: Pass out index cards and request anonymous answers to your questions. Have the index cards passed around the group or otherwise distributed. Use response cards to save time or to provide anonymity for personally threatening self-disclosures. The need to state your answer concisely on a card is another advantage.
   
3. Polling: Design a short survey that is filled out and tallied on the spot, or poll students verbally. Use polling to obtain data quickly and in a quantifiable form. If you use a written survey, try to feed back the results to students as quickly as possible. If you use a verbal survey, ask for a show of hands or invite students to hold up answer cards.
   
4. Subgroup discussion: Break students into subgroups of three r more to share (and record) information. Use subgroup discussion when you have sufficient time to process questions and issues. This is one of the key methods for obtaining everyone's participation.
   
5. Learning partners: Have students work on tasks or discuss key questions with the student seated next to them. Use learning partners when you want to involve everybody but don't have enough time for small-group discussion. A pair is a good group configuration for developing a supportive relationship and/or for working on complex activities that would not lend themselves to large-group configurations.
   
6. Whips: Go around the group and obtain short responses to key questions. Use whips when you want to obtain something quickly from each student. Sentence stems (e.g., "One change I would make in the United States is...") are useful in conducting whips. Invite students to "pass" whenever they wish. To avoid repetition, ask each student for a new contribution to the process.
   
7. Panels: Invite a small number of students to present their views in front of the entire class. An informal panel can be created by asking for the views of a designated number of students who remain in their seats. Use panels when time permits to have a focused serious response to your questions. Rotate panelists to increase participation.
   
8. Fishbowl: Ask a portion of the class to form a discussion circle, and have the remaining students form a listening circle around. Bring new groups into the inner circle to continue the discussion. Use fishbowls to help bring focus to large-group discussions. Through time consuming, this is the best method for combining the virtues of large- and small-group discussion. As a variation on concentric circles, have students remain seated at a table and invite different tables or parts of a table to be the discussants as the others listen.
   
9. Use a fun exercise or a quiz game to elicit students' ideas, knowledge, or skill. TV game shows such as Family Feud or Jeopardy can be used as the basis of a game that elicits participation. Use games to spark energy and involvement. Games are also helpful to make dramatic points that students seldom forget.
   
10. Calling on thin next speaker: Ask students to raise their hands when they want to share their views, and request that the present speaker call on the next speaker (rather than the teacher performing this role). Use this technique when you are sure there is a lot of interest in the discussion or activity and you wish to promote student interaction.

from Mel Silberman's book, 101 Strategies to Teach Arty Subject

Engaging Students Through Learning Pairs

One of the most effective and efficient ways to promote active learning it so divide a class into pairs and compose learning partnerships. It's hard to get left out in a pair. It's also hard to hide in one. It works with the learning styles of introverts and extroverts. Learning partnerships can be short or long term. Learning partners can undertake a wide variety of quick tasks or more time-consuming assignments, such as those in the following list.

1. Discuss a short written document together.
   
2. Interview each other concerning partner's reactions to an assigned reading, a lecture, a video, or any other educational activity.
   
3. Critique or edit each other's written work.
   
4. Question your partner about an assigned reading.
   
5. Recap a lesson or class session together.
   
6. Develop questions together to ask the teacher.
   
7. Analyze a case problem, exercise, or experiment together.
   
8. Test each other.
   
9. Respond to a question posed by the teacher.
   
10. Compare notes taken in class.
    
11. Share a learning from class,
    
12. Identify an application of learning from class.

from Mel Silberrnan's book, 101 Strategies to Teach Airy Subject

Ten Questions to Obtain Student Expectations

An active learning environment is a place where students, needs, expectations, and concerns influence the teacher's instructional plans. You can vary the questions you ask to find out from students what their goals are. Some may be especially appropriate to your situations. You can obtain answers through the ten methods to obtain participation that were described earlier.

1. What questions about (subject matter of class) do you come with?
2. What information or skills do you want to get from this class?
3. What information or skills don't you need or don't you want?
4. What do you want to take away from this class? Name one thing.
5. What are your hopes for this class? What are your concerns?
6. Do the class objectives match what you need?
7. What knowledge or skills do you feel you need to have? Which ones would be nice to have?
8. What are your expectations about this class?
9. Why did you choose this class (if the class is elective)? Why did you come?
10. What have you gotten from previous classes on this topic?

from Mel Silberman's book 101 Strategies to Teach Arty Subject

Ten Strategies to Form Learning Groups

Small-group world is a significant part of active learning. It important to form groups quickly and efficiently and at the same time, to vary the composition and sometimes the size of the groups throughout the class. The following options are interesting alternatives to letting students choose their own groups or counting off up to a number you have designated.

1. Grouping cards: Determine how many students are in the class and how many different groupings you want throughout the session. For example, in a class of twenty, one activity may call for four groups of five; another for five groups of four; still another for six groups of three with two observers. Code these groups using colored dots (red, blue, green, and yellow for four groups), decorative stickers (five different stickers on a common theme for five groups--for example, lions, monkeys, tigers, giraffes, elephants), and a number (I through 6 for six groups). Randomly place a number, colored dot, and sticker on a card for each student and include the card in the student's materials. When you are ready to form your groups, identify the code you are using and direct the students to join their group in a designated place. Student will be able to move quickly to their groups, saving time and eliminating confusion. To make the process even more efficient, you may want to post signs indicating group meeting areas.
   
2. Puzzles Purchase children's jigsaw puzzles or create your own by cutting out pictures from magazines; pasting them on cardboard; and cutting them into the desired shape, size, and number. Select the number of puzzles according to the number of groups you want to create. Separate the puzzles, mix up the pieces, and give each student a puzzle piece. When you are ready to form your groups, instruct students to locate Close with the other pieces needed to complete a puzzle.
   
3. Finding famous fictional friends and families: Create a list of famous fictional family members or friends in groups of three or four (e.g., Peter Pan, Tinker Bell, Captain Hook, Wendy; Alice, Cheshire Cat, Queen of Hearts, Mad Hatter; Superman, Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, Clark Kent). Choose the same number of fictional characters as there are students. Write the fictional names on index cads and give each student a card with a fictional name. When you are ready to form groups, ask the students to find the other members of their "family." Once the famous group is complete, they can find a spot to congregate.
   
4. Name tags: Use name tags of different shapes and/or colors to designate different groupings.
   
5. Birthdays: Ask students to line up by birthdays, then break into the number of groups you need for a particular activity. In large classes, form groups by birth months. For example, 60 students can be divided into three groups of roughly equal size by composing groups of those born in (1) January, February, March, and April; (2) May, June, July, and August; and (3) September, October, November, and December.
   
6. Playing cards: Use a deck of playing cards to designate groups. For example, use jacks, queens, kings, and aces to create four groups of four, and add additional number cards depending on then umber of students. Shuffle the cards and deal one to each student. Then direct students to locate others of their kind to form a group.
   
7. Draw numbers: Determine the number and size of the groups you want to create, put numbers on individual slips of paper, and place them in a box. Students draw a number from the box to indicate the group to which they belong. For example, if you want four groups of four, you would have sixteen slips of paper with four each of the numbers 1 through 4.
   
8. Candy flavors: Give students each a wrapped piece of sugarless hard candy of various flavors to indicate groupings. For example, your four groups might be lemon, butterscotch, cherry, and mint.
   
9. Chose like items: Select toys on a common theme and use them to indicate groups. For example, you might choose transportation and use cars, airplanes, boats, trains. Each student would "draw" a toy from a box and locate others with the same toy to form a group.
   
10. Student materials: You can code student learning materials using colored paper clips, colored handouts, or stickers on folders to predetermine groupings.

from Mel Silberman's book, 101 Strategies to Teach Any Subject

Ten Tips When Facilitating Discussion

Class discussion plays a vital role in active learning. Hearing a wide variety of views challenges students' thinking. Your role during a group discussion is to facilitate the flow of comments from students. Although it is not necessary to interject after each student speaks, periodically assisting the group with their contributions can be helpful.. Here is a ten point facilitation menu to use as you lead group discussions.

1. Paraphrase what someone has said so that the student feels understood and the other students can hear a concise summary of what's been said at greatest length: So, what you're saying is that you have to be very careful about the words you use because a particular person might be offended by them.
   
2. Check your understanding against the words of a student or ask a student to clarify what he or she is saying: Are you saying that this political correctness has gone too far? I'm not sure that I understand exactly what you meant. Could you please run it by us again?
   
3. Compliment an interesting or insightful comment: Let's a good point. I 'm glad that you brought that to our attention.
   
4. Elaborate on a student's contribution to the discussion with examples, or suggest a new way to view the problem: Your comments provide an interesting point from the minority perspective. We could also consider how the majority would view the same situation.
   
5. Energize a discussion by quickening the pace, using humor, or if necessary, prodding the group for more contributions. Oh my, we have lost of quiet people in this class! Here's a challenge for you. For the next two minutes, let's see how many words can you think of that are no longer politically acceptable.
   
6. Disagree (gently) with a student's comments to stimulate further discussion. I can see where you are coming from, but I 'm not sure that what you are describing is always the case. Has anyone else had an experience that is different than Jim's?
   
7. Mediate differences of opinion between students, and relieve any tensions that may be brewing. I think that Susan and Mary are not really disagreeing with each other but are just bringing out two different sides of this issue.
   
8. Pull together ideas, showing their relationship to each other. As you can see from Dan's and Jean's comments, the words we use can offend people. both of them have given us an example of how they feel excluded by gender-bound words.
   
9. Change the group process by altering the method for obtaining participation or moving the group to a stage of evaluating ideas that have been placed before the group. Let's break into smaller groups and see if you can come up with some criteria for establishing gender-sensitive word usage.
   
10. Summarize (and record, if desired) the major views of the group. I have noted three major ideas that have come from the group's discussion as to when words are harmful: (1) They exclude some people. (2) They insult some people. (3) They are determined only by the majority culture.

from Mel Silberman's book, 101 Strategies to Teach Any Subject

TIPS FOR AN "INTERACTIVE LEARNING" LECTURE

The probability of learning taking place in your classroom increases dramatically if you attend to the following four principles in selecting instructional strategies.

1. Maintain a supportive, low risk learning environment. You do this in many ways from the method in which you physically set up the seating in your classroom to the manner in which you ask questions and respond to student answers.
   
2. Engage students actively in learning. Listening, reading, or watching are the lowest levels of engagement. Higher levels of engagement include critical thinking and problem solving.
   
3. Include activities that check for students' level of learning so that you can modify instruction as necessary.
   
4. Increase the level of students' critical thinking through the use of specialized questioning techniques.

Try these tips:

• Begin your lecture with a question. Pair students to discuss the answer and share out with the group. The type of questions depends on what you want to accomplish. You can assess the students' current level of knowledge with "Tell me what you currently know or have heard about __________." This will allow you to adjust your lecture to meet their needs and to include some students to add their experience or prospective on what ;you are telling the group.
  
• Begin your lecture by posing a problem that could be solved or a challenge that could be addressed with the information from your lecture. Example for a lecture on Modes of Advertising: "You want the attention of consumers who typically don't use your product. How would you both get their attention and urge them to buy?" Give the students time to jot down their thoughts or talk with other students. Gather some of the answers and present your lecture building on their responses. This method gets students thinking critically and helps them make connections from your lecture to what they know.
  
• Adult attention span is only 7 to 20 minutes. "Chunk" your lecture into appropriate time blocks with small interactive activities interspersed. This refreshes attention span and provides student engagement with the material, opportunities to check for learning, and opportunities for critical thinking and problem solving. Questions can be answered by individuals writing in a learning log, or shared with a partner or small group include:

• Give the main points of my talk thus far. (retention)
• What question could you pose for your partner over what I have just covered? (comprehension)
• What is the muddiest point for you from the lecture? (comprehension, checking for learning)
• What connections can you make from this lecture to what you already know or what we have already covered? (connections, integration)
• How might you apply this information in your workplace or How has this been used in your experience (connections, projections, application, problem solving)
• Write a good test question for the material you have just heard on a 3"x5" card and give to the instructor. (comprehension, evaluation)

• Use the 3"x5" cards to ask questions for a summary.
  
• Ask students for a one word, phrase, or sentence summary of what they learned. Put that information on the board for shared class knowledge. (checking for learning)
  
• Ask students to make a connection to other [earnings in the course. (checking for higher level learning)
  
• Ask students what they would still like to know (projection, focus for next class)

Many of these activities take as little as one minute, but have to take no more than five minutes. Each,however, engages students and gets them thinking and learning.

REFLECT - CONNECT - PROJECT

With kind permission of Dr. Karen L. Spencer,
Tel: (410) 531-5356  or e-mail: klspda@aol.com
Center for Excellence in Teaching
Johns Hopkins University

© GRC-RCMP
ecdd1140.doc
September 1, 1998